Chapter Six:
The Environmental Impacts of the Wicomico County Canning Industry

Mary Creamer

Attack of the Killer Tomatoes!

Imagine walking down a street one bright summer day and looking up just in time to witness giant fanged tomatoes destroying everything in their path.  You narrowly escape their destruction and quickly find yourself with other survivors trying to devise a plan to get rid of the killer tomatoes.  You have just found yourself part of Attack of the Killer Tomatoes! a 1978 science fiction spoof where normally docile tomatoes become violent vegetables terrorizing suburbia.  Of course this is the work of Hollywood, an attempt for children to have the same attitude towards tomatoes as they do brussel sprouts.  In reality, huge tomatoes are the least of our concerns, but the fertilizers and pesticides applied to tomato plants and other crops have a great impact on the health of people and the environment.  The killer tomatoes we encounter are much more deadly than those in Hollywood as we can’t see the danger.  We are blind to the fertilizers and pesticides oozing into our rivers and all too often discover their effects after a great deal of damage has already been done.  Over application of fertilizers and the use of dangerous pesticides on crops grown for the canning industry in the 1940’s and 1950’s spurred pollution problems that remain today. 

The tomato was only one of the many crops planted in Wicomico County to be canned, yet it dominated the canning industry.  In 1950 Wicomico County harvested the largest acreage of tomatoes in the entire state of Maryland.[i] The tomato was so important to Wicomico County it appears on the seal of the City of Salisbury.  Because the plant requires a great deal of attention to produce fruit satisfactory for canning, many chemicals were developed in the 1940’s and 1950’s to enhance the plant’s growth and deter pests from the plant.   As beneficial as these chemicals were for various crops, the negative effects were unknown at the time of application.  Today the canning industry in Wicomico County has collapsed and farming practices are changing as we are learning how to take better care of the land.

Tomato Farming in Wicomico County

            By the early 1950’s the tomato canning industry in Wicomico County had peaked.  During this time farmers were experiencing their largest crops of tomatoes and were working on how to further increase profits.  In 1951 father and son farmers Claude and Marcus Twilley from Hebron won first place in a statewide contest for growing prize tomatoes.  But the Twilley’s weren’t stopping with the accomplishment of a beautiful tomato, “While we won first place in quality, there’s no reason why we can’t improve on our quantity” the Twilley’s stated.  The Twilley’s developed a plan for growing tomatoes with the use of several fertilizers and pesticides.  “5-10-10 is our best analysis for fertilizers,” the Twilley’s state as it contains 5% nitrogen, 10% phosphorus, and 10% potassium.  Featured in The Tiller for their achievement the Twilley’s shared their knowledge of fertilizers as they used a first application of 800 pounds of 5-10-10 followed by a second application with 500 pounds.

“We feel that our soil here will stand more fertilizer at the earlier stages of tomato growing,” the Twilley’s stated.[ii]  The Twilley’s followed a crop rotation of corn for two years followed by grain.  They found this practice to keep their soil healthy and keep soil pests and diseases away from their crops.

            The Twilley’s were familiar with cover cropping yet used a new concept in 1951 and applied 1,000 pounds of fertilizier to their cover crops of rye and scarlet clover before plowing them into the ground. Most importantly, the Twilley’s would sign with a local canner to ensure profits.  Working closely with a canner the farmers know their prize tomatoes would be appreciated due to the lack of imperfections of their crop.[iii]

History of Artificial Fertilizers and Pesticides

Farming reduces the nutrient level of the soil and the Twilley’s, like most farmers, relied upon fertilizers and pesticides to produce their award winning tomatoes.  Depleting the nutrients of the soil, phosphorus and nitrogen in particular, inhibits plant growth and consequently decreases profits.  Although crop rotation limits nutrient exhaustion it does not provide a faster way to feed an ever growing population. 

The first artificial fertilizer was developed in 1842 by the English farmer John Lawes.  By applying sulphuric acid to phosphate rock he created a superphosphate that could easily be applied to the soil.  Lawes saw the potential of this superphosphate and soon founded the first chemical fertilizer company.[iv]  The 20^th century changed the face of farming as inexpensive artificial fertilizers and pesticides became available to farmers.

Applying nitrogen to the soil proved to be much more daunting.  Until recently, the only way to get nitrogen into the soil was to leave it up to nature, which meant relying on lightening or microbes living in the roots of legumes to enhance the soil.  Getting nitrogen out of the air and into the soil was an intimidating concept until chemist Fritz Haber used ammonia synthesis to extract nitrogen from the air in 1909.  Chemist Karl Bosch took Haber’s method and developed the mass production of nitrates, and the process became known as the Haber-Bosch ammonia synthesis.[v]  This process required a great amount of energy and nitrogen fertilizer production slowed when economic conditions were not favorable, such as during the Depression.[vi]

  Lime has also played an important role in agriculture. Lime kilns could be found in Pennsylvania in 1698.[vii]  As soils became exhausted of calcium and magnesium farmers noticed the benefit of replenishing the soil with the use of lime. Lime is used with fertilizer to reduce the acidity of the soil to generate higher yields and healthier crops.[viii]  The right amount of lime allows plants to use nutrients in the soil for their benefit.[ix]

   Today fertilizers remain a farmer’s best friend as they accelerate the maturation of crops and help insure an abundant crop.  The philosophy for fertilizer use has always been the more the better, as more fertilizer could only mean more yield.  Farmers have become more and more dependent on artificial fertilizers as the years have passed.  In 1940 the world used about 4 million tons of artificial fertilizer.  As astonishing as it may seem, farmers continued to increase their use of artificial fertilizers.  By 1965 about 40 million tons of fertilizer was used by the world and by 1990 almost 150 million tons were applied to the earth.[x]  Altering the soil to this extent has resulted in environmental consequences extending well beyond Wicomico County. With each application farmers could only see the benefits of fertilizer use; unfortunately they could not see the fertilizer accumulating on the land and washing into the streams and rivers after a heavy rain. 

Pesticides are also valuable to farmers, especially when growing tomatoes.  Tomato plants must be applied with pesticide to control insects and may be sprayed several times in one season.  It is also recommended to develop a complete spray and dust program to control insects and disease.  Growers of high quality tomatoes in 1951 developed a routine of spraying or dusting their crops.  Most farmers sprayed or dusted their crops at least twice, while the average was as many as eight times, yet some growers reported coating their tomatoes with pesticides as many as twelve times in one growing season. [xi]  The chemicals introduced to the agricultural market to deter pests were much stronger than originally perceived and the deadly effects slowly began to accumulate.

The Mathematics of Farming: More Fertilizer = More Profits

            A farmer’s greatest asset is the soil and enhancing the soil could only mean enhancing profits.  Fertilizers quickly became known as the best way to improve their yield and more fertilizer could only mean more profits.  The WM. B. Tilghman Company of Salisbury, also known as Tilghman’s Fertilizers, supplied local farmers with fertilizer and was careful to inform their clients of the newest and best procedures for farming.  The company was founded in 1863 and was originally called Humphreys and Tilghman.  The company sold organic fertilizers along with “lime, building materials, fertilizer and flour.”[xii]  Knowing what additives soil needs, the Tilghman’s Fertilizers bought potash mixed in Germany and had it shipped in by boat.  Super-phosphate was conveniently manufactured in Baltimore, and fish from the Chesapeake Bay were used to provide nitrogen.[xiii] As the company became more successful the fish in the mixture were replaced with artificial fertilizer.  The fertilizer was then hand mixed and bagged in 100 pound burlap bags for shipment.[xiv]

Tilghman’s Fertilizers understood that the best way to encourage farmers to use their product was to prove how profitable crops could be with the use of fertilizer.  The Tiller, a journal printed by Tilghman’s Fertilizers shared stories of area farmers and their success with fertilizer.  Like many company journals, The Tiller contained national articles written for fertilizer business across the United States as well as local articles for farmers.  One of the articles directed at farmers across the nation states:

“Fertilizer is your best investment.  The price of fertilizer has not gone up like the prices of many other things the farmer buys.  Fertilizer grows farm profits.  Returns from thousands of tests show that $1 invested in fertilizer produces an average return of $3.75 in extra yields.  On many crops the return is much higher.  Put more fertilizer to work for you.” [xv]

Although the article goes on to advise farmers to contact their County Agent for a soil analysis and fertilizer recommendations, the aim of encouraging fertilizer use is clear.  Of course it is in the interest of a fertilizer company to push artificial fertilizer use.  The more fertilizer a company sold meant more profits as long as farmers were optimistic that they too would benefit from using more fertilizer.  After advising farmers to seek out bank loans necessary, the article in The Tiller is sure to end on a positive note by stating, “Use more fertilizer than ever before and have it on hand when you need it.  Remember, fertilizer grows farm profits.”[xvi]

Too Much of a Good Thing

The application of fertilizer was the answer to many of the problems farmers faced, yet the truth behind heavy use of such products was unknown at the time.  Severe application of nitrogen will kill a plant, yet over application to the soil spurs excessive vegetation growth and the plant will eventually lodge, which means the plant is unable to support itself and falls to the ground.  Stalking is a practice used to combat lodge when the farmer provides support for the plant.  Although stalking keeps the tomatoes off the ground, therefore improving quality, it is an expensive and time consuming task.  It is much easier for a farmer to use caution and not over apply nitrogen by maintaining a careful balance.[xvii]

In the early 1950’s local farmers could average a ten ton crop of tomatoes per acre.  Testing showed that in order to maintain the average farmers should use 100 pounds of nitrogen and 200 pounds of phosphoric acid to each acre for tomatoes destined for processing in the canneries.[xviii]  In comparison, farmers are currently recommended by the Maryland Cooperative Extension to use only 50 to 75 pounds of nitrogen and no more than 150 pounds of phosphoric acid per acre when growing tomatoes for processing.[xix]

In addition to the impacts on the soil, over application of fertilizer effects water ways. Generous applications of fertilizer became an issue when heavy rains washed the excess off the fields and into nearby rivers.  High levels of phosphorus and nitrates in the rivers, also know as eutrophication, promotes rapid algae blooms.  Excess algae causes a phenomenon where the level of oxygen is depleted and many organisms in the water cannot survive. 

Miracle Chemicals Bring Disaster

            Pesticides contributed to the canning industry as farmers used them to keep their crops healthy.  An abundance of chemicals were introduced to the agricultural market in the 1940’s and 1950’s.  These chemicals could be obtained through fertilizer distributors, such as Tilghman’s Fertilizers, and were easy to apply to crops.  A wide variety was available as everything from grasshoppers to nematodes could be eliminated from farmer’s fields.  Best of all, there were pesticides available for insects that had built up a resistance to older chemicals.[xx]  Newer and stronger chemicals were needed as pests built up a resistance to chemicals due to repeated exposure of the same chemical.

            One of the most notorious insecticides used on tomatoes and other crops was DDT.  By 1950’s almost all other forms of pest control had been replaced by chemicals, such as dicholor-diphenyl-trichloro-ethane (DDT).[xxi]  Not only was DDT incredibly effective, it was a cost-efficient chemical available to the public by the mid 1940’s.  The Wm. B. Tilghman Company was proud to offer such a successful product and advertised their sale of DDT to local farmers.[xxii]  The problem with DDT was that it was not only being applied to crops, but also roadways, golf courses, and new housing developments.[xxiii]  Humans were coming in contact with this chemical on a daily basis. The East Coast and Eastern Shorewas showered with DDT as it was sprayed to control the levels of mosquitoes.[xxiv]

            Many feared the effects DDT could have on humans and the environment, despite the numerous claims from the Department of Agriculture, Public Health Service, and Food and Drug Administration that man-made pesticides were safe to use.[xxv]  Rachel Carson, an employee of the Fish and Wildlife Service in the 1930’s, began to see detrimental effects which she credited to synthetic pesticides.  Through her research Carson was able to prove how hydrocarbons become concentrated at high levels and moves from one organism to another in the food chain in the fatty tissues of plants, fish, animals and humans.[xxvi]  The risks of DDT included considerably higher cancer rates and genetic disorders.  Carson wrote Silent Spring to inform the public about her research on the dangers of DDT.  Her writing spurred a public outcry against the use of DDT until it was finally banned in the United States in 1972.

            The dangers of these synthetic chemicals were much worse than the fear of humans ingesting a trace amount in the vegetables that would soon be canned.  Another one of the most heavily used insecticides on crops was Toxaphene.  Because these chemicals are man made, they do not break down in the environment or in our bodies.  Once ingested, Toxaphene accumulates in fish and mammals and over time small traces begin to amount to larger traces.  Because this insecticide does not dissolve in water, it tends to settle at the bottom of lakes and rivers where it becomes exposed to shellfish.  In Silent Spring Rachel Carson states, “enough toxaphene remains in sandy soil ten years after its application to kill termites.”[xxvii]  Although it can cause such health problems in humans as damage to the lungs, nervous system, kidneys, and even death, most humans are not exposed to high levels of the chemical since it was banned in 1990.[xxviii] Rachel Carson states in her book, “One of the most important things to remember about insecticides in soil is their long persistence, measured not in months but in years.”[xxix]

            Parathion, however, was an insecticide developed for insects that had built up a tolerance to DDT.  Available to the public for agricultural use, Parathion was “relatively inexpensive and a favorite with farmers who have a bad insect problem.”  Farmers were cautioned, however, of the dangers of Parathion and were told “it is a strong chemical that will do a good job, but care should be taken when using it because of its toxic effects; and because of its residue it should not be applied close to harvest time.”[xxx] 

Exposure to high levels of Parathion from the air or water may cause death, loss of consciousness, dizziness, confusion, headaches, difficultly with breathing, tightness in the chest, vomiting, diarrhea, cramps, tremors, blurred vision, and sweating.  It is also illegal to use Parathion on any crops children commonly consume.[xxxi]  Today the Environmental Protection Agency restricts the use of Parathion and application is only permitted by those trained to work with the pesticide.

We now know that pesticides contaminate groundwater.  This was also unknown when crops were being doused with chemicals in the 1940’s and 1950’s.  Rachel Carson explains how pesticides contaminate groundwater in Silent Spring:

            “In the entire water-pollution problem, there is probably nothing more disturbing than the threat of widespread contamination of groundwater.  It is not possible to add pesticides to water anywhere without threatening the purity of water everywhere…Rain, falling on the land, settles down through pores and cracks in the soil and rocks, penetrating deeper and deeper until eventually it reaches a zone where all the pores of the rock are filled with water.”[xxxii]

These underground storage areas are called aquifers and make up for 90% of water used by the rural population in the United States, primarily through wells.[xxxiii]  The water table in Wicomico County is very shallow due to the number of lakes and marshes in the area.  A shallow water table means there is only a few feet of soil for water to pass though to be filtered.  This would not be a concern if the soil has high levels of clay to keep contaminates from moving into the aquifer quickly, yet the soil in Wicomico County is sandy and chemicals move through the soil at a fast rate.[xxxiv] 

            The fear of pesticides contaminating groundwater remains an issue today.  In 1980 the Environmental Protection Agency discovered the pesticide dibromochloro-propane (DBCP) to have seeped into the groundwater polluting three out of the thirty six wells tested only three miles from Salisbury, Maryland.[xxxv]  Although the use of this pesticide was stopped in 1979, the danger of polluting an aquifer is that once it is contaminated it will remain polluted forever.

Many steps are being taken by farmers to prevent groundwater contamination.  Farmers are now encouraged to use a variety of pesticides to avoid contamination due to heavy use of any one chemical applied.  The use of the same product every year or several times in one growing season increases the chance of contamination due to the amount of pesticide in the soil.  Wells are advised be at least fifty feet away from where pesticides are stored.  Farmers living in an area with a shallow water table, such as Wicomico County, are encouraged to use a pesticide that will not linger for years after its use. By following these tips farmers are able to prevent contaminating groundwater.[xxxvi]

The Complete Canning Industry

Although the fertilizers and pesticides used on canned crops damaged the soil and water, the individual canneries were also guilty of harmful practices.  Like most industries, many local tomato canneries were located on the river.  After a day of canning the canneries were washed out with the water and the wastes would be flushed out into the river.  The peels, cores, and imperfections in the nearby rivers caused the waterways to take on a red appearance.  Not only was waste treatment expensive, it was only required “when conventional sewage systems could not absorb the skins.”  This meant special arrangements and systems with initial costs running into substantial amounts. [xxxvii] 

The canning industry has left Wicomico County, yet the impact of the fertilizers and pesticides used on tomatoes during the 1940’s and 1950’s remain today. From saturating the soil with artificial phosphorus and nitrogen, to dousing plants with chemicals that brought more harm than good, to the fear of contaminating groundwater, the canning industry left a scar on the face of Wicomico County.  We have learned to change our ways since the booming years of tomato canning yet we are still in the process of mending many mistakes.  Although residents in the area today will not have to beware killer tomatoes, they should be aware of the impact that even a great economic boom can have on their health and the condition of their land and water.

The canning industry thrived in Wicomico County due to rich soil for crops and access to water for shipping.  The effects of over application of fertilizer and showering of dangerous chemicals on crops destined for the canning industry in Wicomico County can still be seen today.  From the low level of organic matter in the sandy soil to the dangers of contaminated groundwater, Wicomico County has felt much more than the economic benefits of the canning industry.  Of everything involved in canning, the land and the water absorbed the greatest amount of damage. 

The severe use of fertilizer in the past has reduced the present level of organic matter in the soil.  Organic nutrient sources are increasing in popularity as they allow farmers to grow healthy crops from healthy soil without heavy fertilizing.  Cover cropping is a method used to reduce nutrient loss outside of the growing season of a crop. Crops such as small grains, sudangrass, sudex, timothy, orchardgrass, and ryegrass are recommended for cover cropping as they can reduce the buildup of many diseases that can attack vegetable crops, hold nutrients in the soil, and can provide wind protection for crops early in the next growing season.[xxxviii]

 Hairy vetch is one of the few plants that puts nitrogen back into the soil naturally, making it an ideal cover crop for tomatoes.  Tomatoes grown in hairy vetch remain healthy and continue to produce fruit for longer periods than other growing methods.  As a cover crop hairy vetch reduces erosion, conserves moisture in soil during the summer, improves the productiveness of the soil, and also suppresses the growth of weeds.[xxxix]  More and more farmers are reducing their dependency of fertilizer for tomatoes by allowing hairy vetch to naturally replace nutrients in soil.

Hope remains for the health of Wicomico County soil as farmers are changing how their farming impacts the land.  Jay Martin, an organic farmer in Wicomico County, is one of these farmers.  Jay tests the nutrient level of his soil regularly.  Whenever adjustments are needed he is careful to use natural amendments only when needed.  Jay uses cover cropping of hairy vetch to provide nitrogen to his soil.  Rather than saturating his crops with pesticides Jay uses a form of insect management called Integrated Pest Management.  Integrated Pest Management focuses on gathering information about the lives and interactions of pests to create an environmentally aware approach to controlling them without the use of pesticides.  As more farmers turn to environmentally safer farming practices the future of Wicomico County brightens.

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