Shipper, F., (1991). Human Relations, 44(4), 371-388.
A behavioral approach was applied to the study of leadership. The subjects were managers of sub-units in a hospital. Eleven managerial behaviors were assessed using the managers' subordinates as untrained observers and using behaviorally anchored questionnaires. Effectiveness was assessed by industrial engineering measures of employee attitude and performance. The results indicated that managers of sub-units of high and low morale and/or performance exhibited significantly different levels of mastery of managerial behaviors. In contrast, no differences were found in frequency of managerial behaviors for either high or low morale units. Only one managerial behavior was observed to be significantly more frequent for managers of high and low performing units. Overall, higher frequency of managerial behaviors was found to be associated with low performing sub-units.